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Managerial Economics

01 Introduce​

booklist​

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Subject areas in Managerial Economics​

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Case​

  • change in bookstore
  • economics of mask under Coronavirus (新冠疫情下的经济)
  • License to online ride-booking platform

Course Outline​

  • Introduce
  • Competitive market
    1. Demand analysis
    2. Cost Analysis
    3. Market Equliibrium and Efficiency
  • Market Power
    1. Monopoly and Pricing
    2. Strategic thinking
  • Imperfect Market
    • Externalities , Asymmetric information , Regulation

What is Managerial economics​

The science of cost-effective management of scarce resources, or the application of economic theory and methods to management decision making.

keywords: business logic , value creation , markets and polices ,

如何配置稀缺资源 , 以利润最大化(使管理更有效)。

Core Assumptions​

  1. Individuals act in their own interest .
  2. individuals are rational

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Organization and Markets​

organization boundaries: vertical , Horizontal .

Vertical boundaries – closer to or further from end user

Horizontal boundaries – scale and scope of activities

Market​

Markets are places where Buyers and sellers communicate with one another for voluntary exchange.

demand substitutability

Homogenization(同质化) & differentiation

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Opportunity cost and economics profit​

Economic profit = Accounting profit – Opportunity cost + Sunk cost

附加值​

附加值=买方收益 - 卖方成本

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决策​

择时​

贴现​

将未来的价值贴现到现在。才可以与当前价值比较。

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净现值​

一系列收入与贴现值的总和。

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组织​

组织边界,外包。

市场​

竞争市场,市场力(market power ), 不完美市场。

02 Demand and Elasticity​

个人需求​

需求曲线&边际收益

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Marginal benefit = the additional benefit provided by an additional unit of item

  1. Normal product
  2. Inferior product (demand is negatively related to changes in buyer’s income
  • Complements product △Q1 /△p2 < 0 互补品
  • Substitutes product △Q1 /△p2 > 0 替代品

Durable goods

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Two part price : fixed and usage charge

需求与收入​

the other factor affect market demand​

  1. price
  2. advertising
  3. income level
  4. population (gender , age distribution)

互补品(一个涨,另外一个卖少)​

替代品(一个涨,另外一个卖多)​

买方剩余​

消费者所获得的总收益是消费者愿意为这些产品所支付的最高价。

需求曲线显示 了消费者每购买一个单位产品所带来的边际收益 。

在购买行为是自愿的假设下,消费者必须从交易中获得一些买方剩余,否则,他就不会购买。因此在交易中,买方愿意支付的最高价是买方的 总收益 。

套餐和2段定价法​

移动通信的套餐榨干每一元消费者剩余。

03 弹性​

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demand elastic​

  • Own-price elasticity is percentage change in quantity demanded resulting from 1% increase in price of the item.

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  • Income elasticity is percentage change in quantity demanded resulting from 1% increase in income.
  • Advertising elasticity is percentage change in quantity demanded resulting from 1% increase in advertising expenditure.
  • Adjustment time: short run , long run . long-run demand is more elastic than short run
  • The cross-price elasticity of demand is the percentage by which the demand will change if the price of a related item rises by 1%.

边际收益​

每增加一个单位产品所获得的收益 。

收入弹性​

交叉价格弹性​

某种需求量在相关产品价格变化是的变动百分比。正值替代品,负值互补品。

广告弹性​

调整时间-short, long​

有限更改​

沉没成本谬误,锚定效应。

04 供给​

是否继续经营,以及在什么规模上经营。

short run , long run. // 是指卖方是否来及更改的项。

固定成本,可变成本

边际成本 // 每多生产一个单位产品,所引起的成本变化。

平均成本 , 总成本除以总产量。

边际产量:每增加一个单位的投入,而获得的产出。

4.3 短期个人供给曲线​

成本与收入

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上图,边际成本等于边际收入时,利润最大化。

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收支平衡​

短期收支平衡是产品售价不低于变动成本。

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长期个人供给曲线​

长期成本

生产率

卖方剩余​

供给曲线的另外 一种解释是,生产者对其产品所愿意接受的最低价格。

供给弹性​

供给的成本因素产生变化,将如何影响生产量。(假设价格不变)

由于供给曲线比较难获得,通过供给弹性来获得这一问题的答案。

供给相对于影响供给的因素变化所产生的反应程度。

价格弹性​

价格变化对供给的影响。 不太好实践。

可用生产力与调整时间。

市场供给​

市场供给曲线。长、短。

05 Market Equilibrium(市场均衡)​

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管理经济学的核心在于供需模型。

完全竞争-Perfect-Competition​

homogeneous 同质,买方多,卖方多,自由进入和退出-free entry/exit , 买卖信息对称 。

市场均衡​

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quantity demanded = quantity supplied .

Impact on equilibrium ?​

供给变动, 需求变动, 调整时间

短期中,通过边际成本等于市场价格的点上经营,来全利润最大化。

市场结构​

number and size of firms that compete with the market .

05 Monopoly(垄断) and Price​

Perfect competition , Monopolistic competition , Oligopoly , monopoly .

ingredients 要素​

Profit max​

MC = MR

short run : SR > variable costs

long run : LR revenue > fixed and variable costs.

Price discrimination​

direct segment discrimination

Priceing policies resolving cannibalization(蚕食)​

low margin item draws customer from high margin product.

06 Economic Efficiency 经济效率​

~ is the benchmark for maximizing value. equal marginal cost for all suppliers.

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invisible hand​

Economic system is which resource are allocated through the independent decisions of buyers and sellers. guided by freely moving prices.

Application of economic efficiency​

Decentralization , intermediation , price control .

Transfer price : price charged for the sale of an item within an organization. 在组织内销售物品的价格。

incidence: Tax

Price control and surplus changes​

07 Cost Analysis​

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short run : time horizon within which seller cannot adjust at least one input.

long run: time horizon long enough for seller to adjust all inputs.

fixed cost , variable cost .

marginal cost

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short run cost​

short run fixed cost is sunk cost .

Long-run cost​

seller surplus 消费者盈余​

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Market supply curve​

sunk cost​

Strategic implications 战略影响

Opportunity cost​

Economies of scale​

“The division of labor is limited by the extent of the market.” “分工受到市场范围的限制。”

economics of scope 范围​

机场

Expericnce Curve​

06 Strategic Thinking​

Game Theory is the study of the multi-player decision problems.

payoffs 报偿

Prisoners' Dilema​

for class of game [complete/uncomplete information , static/dynamic game ]

Dominant Strategies​

Nash Equilibrium​

12 Externalities and Asymmetric Information (外部性)​

学习目标​

  1. 正负外部性
  2. 做为基准的经济效率,以及通过解决外部性提高利润
  3. 如何解决外部性和相关障碍
  4. 理解网络效应,管理具有网络效应的需求
  5. 理解 公共品
  6. 如何商业化供给公共品

引言​

新加坡 vivo city 针对不同的商户,截然不同的租金,为什么?

当一方直接将收益或成本传递给其它方时,外部性就会产生。

正负外部性​

解决外部性​

  1. 共有所有权
  2. 协议

网络效应​

随着网络规模的变大而增加收益 或成本。

临界用户人数​

在具有网络效应的市场中, 在用户人数超过临界点之前,需求为零。

预期​

使用者的预期是一个重要因素。考虑一个社交软件,使用者的预期,乐观与悲观 。乐观他假设其它人也会使用,悲观他假设它人不会用,他也就不会安装这个社交软件。

需求倾斜​

强者恒强。

价格弹性​

超过临界点。价格非常有弹性。

公共品​

非竞争性消费。一个人增加消费不会减少其它使用的数量。提供公共品的成本与消费者数量无关,为额外消费者提供服务的边际成本为零。

排它性​

通常情况下,产品能够进行商业化供给取决于它的排他性。

只要某一物品是非排它性的,个体消费者 就有搭便车的动机。

内容与传递​

药方与药片,广播与有线电视

法律​

技术​

13 Asymmetric Information (信息不对称)​

学习目标​

  1. 了解不完全信息及其风险
  2. 了解信息不对称及其后果
  3. 了解并运用鉴定方法来解决信息不对称
  4. 了解并运用筛选方法来解决信息不对称
  5. 理解如何进行拍卖及投票
  6. 了解运用发信号来解决信息不对称
  7. 了解并运用合同来解决信息不对称

引言​

不完全信息​

逆向选择​

Appraisal 鉴宝, 拍卖 , Screening 筛选, 信号(如:品牌)

Screening: who is the real mother ?

contingent contract 或有合同

合同约定​